Challenges and Opportunities: Addressing Gender Issues in Elite Sports

INTRODUCTION

Female sports have achieved remarkable milestones in recent years, reflecting the concerted gender strategy efforts of all international sports organizations [1]. One example of the substantial progress in female sports is the gender strategy implemented by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Over the years, the IOC has made significant strides in promoting gender equity. For instance, no women participated in the Games of the I Olympiad in Athens (1896). However, by the 26th Olympic Games in Atlanta (1996), the participation of female athletes increased to 34.2% of the total number of participants. This trend continued, and the Paris 2024 Olympic program aims for 50% participation of men and women, highlighting the IOC's commitment to gender equality in sports. Despite this progress, there remain substantial gaps in gender-specific research, particularly in training methodologies for female athletes.

Despite progress in female sports, informal observations suggest that general sports science provisions and infrastructure for many sportswomen lag behind those available to sportsmen [2]. Women competing at comparable levels to men may have less access to sports performance support (e.g., sports and medical science), possibly resulting from understated funding indicators. In terms of sports preparedness level, distinct gender differences have been observed in anthropometrics [3-5], physical performance [6-12], physiological characteristics [13,14], and movement demands [15-18]. The data on the lower percentage of skeletal muscles in the body composition, lower maximum velocity, and strength of women compared to men have been revealed [15,19,20]. The influence of the ovulatory-menstrual cycle on women's sports performance has been investigated in-depth [21-28]. The valuable insights into gender-specific issues in sports and the unique training needs of female athletes [27-32].

Research into gender-specific issues in sports science has made significant strides worldwide, yet numerous questions remain, particularly regarding female sports [10,11,33]. One critical problem is that many coaches of female teams still use male training programs, which can be especially dangerous for female health in strength training. Based on the works of the authors mentioned above, we have identified the leading indicators of the gender-specific psychophysiological, physiological, anthropometric, and biomechanical characteristics that influence the physical preparedness and effectiveness of strength exercises like squats with a barbell among elite athletes. While elite athletes generally require exceptional physical preparedness, these gender-specific factors highlight the importance of tailoring training programs, technique coaching, and performance monitoring to address male and female athletes' unique physiological, biomechanical, and psychophysiological characteristics in strength-based sports and exercises. Furthermore, some studies comparing male and female athletes suggest that men excel in most physical abilities.

The study aims to identify the most critical practical challenges related to gender issues that elite female athletes and their coaches face when utilizing classical methods to monitor and assess general physical preparedness. In planning the experimental portion of the study, several tasks were defined: To reveal the main problems in elite sportswomen's training and competitive processes using expert estimations; To determine anthropometric, psychophysiological, and biomechanical indicators of men and women in the experimental group to analyze gender differences; To compare the results of tests for the effectiveness of general physical training exercises, squats explicitly with a barbell were used between two gender groups, and data were collected from women only in the optimal phases of the ovulatory-menstrual cycle. Concerning this, the following research questions have been formulated:

• What are elite female athletes and their coaches' primary challenges in monitoring and assessing general physical preparedness using classical methods?

• How do anthropometric, psychophysiological, and biomechanical indicators differ between elite male and female athletes, and what implications do these differences have for training practices?

• How does the ovulatory-menstrual cycle influence the performance outcomes of general physical training exercises in elite female athletes?

• How can gender-specific adaptations to innovative monitoring and assessment methods improve training effectiveness for elite female athletes?

• These questions address our study's core aim while providing a structured foundation for experimental inquiry and analysis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

RESULTS

An expert assessment was conducted to determine the most important factors in the structure of women’s sports training, considering the problems of modern sports training for elite athletes and the peculiarities of sexual dimorphism. The following factors were highly prevalent in experts’ answers concerning problems in women’s sports: 1) load planning during special physical training similar to men, 2) transferring the training models of male athletes to the training of women, 3) outdated systems of training female athletes without considering their biological cycles, 4) old injuries or illnesses due to the incompetence of previous or youth coaches, 5) insufficient pharmacological and medico-biological support of women’s national teams during training, competitions, and recovery, and 6) less attention to women’s sports in financial and organizational aspects.

An analysis of the materials of expert assessment was conducted to identify the general experts’ opinions regarding the existing gender problems on the effective development of elite women’s sports. For this purpose, we created a matrix of ratings of ranked factors by each expert. Considering W = 0.94, an approximate result of 1, the experts’ assessments had the highest level of agreement. Thus, we accepted the hypothesis of an agreement between specialists and determined that the results of the expert group’s questionnaire could be trusted. Expert analysis in modern conditions is one of the most effective means of obtaining and analyzing qualitative information to identify existing problems in the practice of elite female sports [10, 11].

Therefore, considering the results of modern scientific research and using a systematic approach to evaluating the innovative potential of the development of women’s sports, following the main gender problems in high-achievement sports identified by experts, we divided the obtained indicators for its evaluation into three groups: 1) improper training load planning, 2) insufficient awareness of the youth coach, and 3) the impact of “gender inequality” in society (Table 1).

The processing of expert evaluation data was the source material for synthesizing predictive hypotheses and options for optimal ways to increase the effectiveness of managing elite female athletes’ training and competitive activities. Hence, based on the defined problems and available scientific developments in female sports, we examined complex coordination sports with an anaerobic-aerobic load, where the basis of special physical training consists of speed-strength direction exercises and coordination. Specifically, according to regulations in sports games (e.g., basketball, volleyball, and handball), the volumes of loads in competitions are the same for men and women. They are sometimes incorrectly interpreted when building the training process of female athletes, especially when transferring male models using the same techniques of performing movements, methods, and amounts of load during special physical training.

Many scientific studies on gender characteristics in sports have indicated that men and women differ considerably in their psychophysiological properties. Women are characterized by greater emotional excitability than men and increased sensuality. Athletes often react negatively to the atmosphere of competitions, and excessive excitement may disrupt their ability to achieve higher results. The statistical analysis of the results using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-test showed that, in general, men were likely to differ from women in the following indicators (Table 2): the latency period of a simple visual-motor reaction and a complex visual-motor reaction of choosing two of three stimuli (p < 0.05) [10,11].

The latency periods of a simple visual-motor reaction were the shortest for men (p < 0.05); more precisely, the average value of latent periods of simple visual-motor reaction for men was = 234.24 ms, with standard deviation – SD = 21.55 ms and – 265.09 ms and 32.03 ms for women, respectively. Defining the latent period of the choice reaction in sports games is critical because its duration determines the athlete’s speed qualities, which are essential in speed-strength sports.

Thus, the average latency period of the choice 2–3 reaction in men was = 411.62 ms, with standard deviation – SD = 44.66 ms and – 451.28 ms and 54.89 ms for women, respectively. Such results are attributed to the fact that the activity of a woman’s nervous system is much more mobile and tightly associated with different biological factors of the body than in men. Thus, the analysis of the obtained indicators revealed that the manifestation of the characteristics of psychophysiological functions for men and women differed according to gender. More specifically, attention predominates for men and mobility and strength of nervous processes for women.

The function of motherhood determines the formation of several features of the female body structure and the activity of many organs and systems of the body in different periods of life. For instance, physiological features of a woman’s bone and joint apparatus are a special configuration and size of the body, the prevailing length of the spine with height, a short and wide chest, and the characteristic placement of the femoral head and neck.

The round shape of a woman’s body is caused by a subcutaneous fat layer comprising 28% of her body weight (only 18% in men) because the oxidative processes in women proceed much more slowly. The subcutaneous fat layer is a protective barrier for the female body, requiring much energy during menstruation and pregnancy. Therefore, all listed aspects represent crucial factors that a coach should consider in the training process for women, especially concerning speed-strength exercises [10,11].

Anthropometric measurements of elite athletes in two experimental groups enabled determining that, on average, women's bodies are longer than men's, whereas arms and legs are shorter. Specifically, female athletes in the group were 5.88 cm shorter in height and 7–8 kg lighter in weight, explained by the smaller volume of the woman’s body and the weaker muscle development.

In addition, women’s muscle strength is much lower than men’s because their muscles are thinner and have many layers of fatty tissue. We determined the following indicators of hand strength for elite athletes using the dynamometry method: statistically significant differences p < 0.01 in male athletes’ dynamometry of the dominant (53.54 ± 4.75 kg) and non-dominant (50.67 ± 5.26 kg) hands compared to the group of female athletes’ dynamometry of the dominant (30.59 ± 3.54 kg) and non-dominant (29.06 ± 3.42 kg) hands (Table 3). Hand dominance was determined using a standardized self-report questionnaire alongside practical tests of manual dexterity and grip strength.

In a large-scale study, we investigated the impact of hormonal changes associated with the ovulatory-menstrual cycle on women engaged in team and individual sports. The study aimed to evaluate the specific effects on their athletic performance. Our analysis confirmed findings from prior research [27,28,34,36-39] and broadened our understanding of how hormonal fluctuations in different phases of the ovulatory-menstrual cycle impacted female athletes during their sports training. Key findings included:

− Menstruation Phase (Days 1-5): Characterized by a decrease in muscle strength and endurance, longer motor reaction times, and reduced speed, but an increase in short-term work capacity. Additionally, this phase often saw occurrences of depression and indifference in the initial days.

− Postmenstrual Phase (Days 6-12): This phase demonstrated the most favorable parameters for achieving heightened sports and technical performance. The autonomic nervous system was in a balanced state during this period.

− Ovulation Phase (Days 13-14): Marked by decreased work capacity, attention, and the ability to execute new technical actions accurately.

− Postovulatory Phase (Days 14-22): This phase signified the peak of working capacity, resembling the advantageous features of the second phase.

− Premenstrual Phase (Days 23-28): Known for observable reduced coordination abilities, speed, endurance, and overall work capacity.

Integrating psychophysiological, anthropometric, and hormonal analyses provided a comprehensive understanding of female athletes' unique physiological and hormonal profiles. These insights could profoundly inform the design of tailored training programs to maximize the performance and well-being of female athletes. Furthermore, by combining knowledge of hormonal fluctuations with gender-specific physiological characteristics, we conducted an experimental Romberg test exclusively for female athletes during their 2nd and 4th menstrual cycle phases, which was known for yielding optimal coordination ability results. However, women outperformed men in the accuracy of movement coordination, demonstrating that female athletes obtained significantly better indicators of the quality of the balance function.

The balance function is an integral characteristic of the human condition. In sports, various tests are often used, including stabilometric tests for balance, to assess the psychophysical state of an athlete. Such studies are relevant because the use of the stabilographic control technique for assessing the kinetic stability of the body of athletes is a modern diagnostic tool for normal conditions and various disorders. Furthermore, it can be used to control the quality training of the vestibular analyzer, coordination abilities, and psychophysiological sustainability.

To assess the level of development of the balance function of elite female and male athletes, standard and complicated Romberg tests were used with open and closed eyes, using visual stimulation (e.g., alternating-colored circles) in the first case and sound stimulation (e.g., tone signals) in the second case. The posture of the athletes was modeled using the technique of the initial position during the exercise - squat with a barbell. As shown, women achieved very good postural stability under the influence of external stimuli, both with and without visual control.

Interestingly, for men, there was a deterioration in the indicators of posture stability under the influence of external verbal stimuli without visual control. Based on the comparison of the stabilograms of two samples, we determined the degree of visual stability of standing and feedback provided by optical sensitivity (i.e., the Romberg coefficient) and the significant differences between the results of men (173 ± 3%) and women (216 ± 2%; see Table 4). The higher the percentage, the better the athlete was coordinated and trained. Considering the ratio of the quality of the equilibrium function of elite athletes without and with visual control, significantly higher indicators were observed for the women (0.98 ± 0.02) than the men (0.78 ± 0.06).

A determined difference in the time characteristics of the visual-motor reactions of elite athletes of different sexes that differed in complexity affected the reduced determinism and increased stochasticity in the information processing system in women compared to men. The stochasticity of the functional system ensures the search for the necessary links to determine the optimal level of functioning. Thus, stochasticity in women in the conditions of sports activities is a basis for forming a functional system of information processing, which enables a compensatory search for the optimal organization of the integrative function of the brain in the conditions of adaptation to sports activities. Thus, one psychophysiological feature of sexual dimorphism in elite athletes is the better development of cognitive functions in men than women.

DISCUSSION

The persistent evidence indicating a gap in sports science provisions and infrastructure between male and female athletes, resulting in limited access to vital sports performance support, underscores a longstanding issue in the field [40]. However, our research indicates that female athletes can achieve superior results when compared during the correct menstrual cycle phases. Our study aims to identify and highlight the most critical practical challenges related to gender issues faced by elite female athletes and their coaches when using classical methods to monitor general physical preparedness, exemplified by the barbell squat exercise.

Our study substantially contributes to the current dialogue on gender-specific characteristics in elite athlete training, speed, and strength performances. The persistent evidence indicating a gap in sports science provisions and infrastructure between male and female athletes, resulting in limited access to vital sports performance support, underscores a longstanding issue in the field. In line with established literature, our findings reinforce the existence of notable gender differences across various dimensions of sports preparedness [6,41-43]. Anthropometric variations, physical performance indicators, physiological characteristics, and movement demands all exhibit discernible gender-related distinctions. Our study aligns with previous investigations into crucial aspects such as skeletal muscle composition, maximum velocity, and strength, consistently affirming the trend of lower values in women than men.

Our results confirmed well-documented gender differences in anthropometric and physiological characteristics [3,19,20]. Women were generally shorter in height and lighter in weight than men, with a higher percentage of body fat and lower muscle mass. These findings align with existing literature, consistently reporting similar gender differences. This information is crucial for coaches and trainers when designing training programs to accommodate these differences.

The psychophysiological tests indicated significant gender-specific differences. Men had shorter latency periods for simple and complex visual-motor reactions than women. This suggests that men generally exhibit faster reaction times, critical in team sports games. The results align with prior studies that report quicker reaction times and greater attention in men, while women demonstrate higher emotional excitability and greater mobility and strength in nervous processes [44].

Our analysis of the impact of hormonal changes associated with the ovulatory-menstrual cycle on women's sports performance provided nuanced insights. The findings indicated variations in muscle strength, endurance, motor reaction times, and overall work capacity across different menstrual cycle phases. For instance, the menstruation phase was characterized by reduced muscle strength and endurance, while the postmenstrual phase showed the most favorable parameters for sports performance. These results corroborate previous research and underscore the importance of considering menstrual cycle phases in female athletes' training and performance evaluation [22,23,28,34].

The expert assessment identified several critical issues in the current training practices for female athletes:

− Load Planning: Many training programs plan loads similarly for men and women without considering gender-specific needs.

− Training Models: The direct transfer of male training models to female athletes was deemed inappropriate due to biological differences.

− Outdated Systems: Existing training systems often fail to incorporate women's biological cycles.

− Previous Injuries and Incompetence: Injuries or illnesses from past coaching inefficiencies remain problematic.

− Pharmacological and Medico-Biological Support: Insufficient support during training, competition, and recovery.

− Financial and Organizational Support: Less attention and funding are directed towards women's sports.

The high level of agreement among experts (W = 0.94) supports the validity of these findings and highlights the need for tailored approaches in female athlete training. While our study provides comprehensive insights into gender-specific differences and their implications for training, it has some limitations. The substantial sample size may not capture the full diversity of elite athletes. Additionally, focusing on specific sports means that findings may not be generalizable across all disciplines.

Some coaches fail to apply this knowledge, leading to deteriorating health in female athletes and shortening their peak competitive performance periods. The reasons for this reluctance to apply gender-specific knowledge are varied and remain under investigation. However, the primary reasons identified thus far are as follows:

− The desire for immediate results. Some coaches prioritize immediate performance gains without considering the long-term health consequences for female athletes.

− Complexity and costs. The methods for monitoring women's health are often seen as complex, financially burdensome, and time-consuming.

Future research should expand on these findings by exploring interventions tailored to female athletes, considering hormonal cycles, and developing training models that address the identified issues. Longitudinal studies could provide deeper insights into the long-term effects of tailored training programs on performance and injury rates.

Our research identifies primary practical challenges associated with gender-specific issues for elite female athletes, influencing the efficacy of executing strength exercises such as squats with a barbell. By highlighting the anthropometric, psychophysiological, and hormonal differences between male and female athletes, our findings advocate for a gender-inclusive approach in sports science. This approach promotes overall performance and well-being and ensures that female athletes receive the support and training they need to excel in their respective sports.

CONCLUSION

The method of expert assessments has revealed a common problem in sports practice - insufficient integration of gender knowledge among children's coaches. This deficiency leads to suboptimal planning of training loads, negatively affecting female athletes' health and future sporting longevity. Numerous existing scientific approaches are often ignored, which necessitates a search for the causes of this negative phenomenon.

Our findings align with previous research on gender differences in sports performance across anthropometric, strength, psychophysiological, and biomechanical parameters. Female athletes in the experimental group were, on average, 5.88 cm shorter and 7–8 kg lighter than male athletes, reflecting smaller body volumes and less muscle development. Hand strength demonstrated statistically significant differences (p < 0.01), with male athletes exhibiting higher dynamometry values in both dominant (53.54 ± 4.75 kg) and non-dominant (50.67 ± 5.26 kg) hands compared to females (30.59 ± 3.54 kg and 29.06 ± 3.42 kg, respectively). Psychophysiological assessments revealed shorter latency periods of simple visual-motor reactions in men (234.24 ± 21.55 ms) compared to women (265.09 ± 32.03 ms, p < 0.05), likely influenced by hormonal and biorhythmic fluctuations more pronounced in women. Biomechanical analysis showed significant differences in the Romberg coefficient, with men achieving 173 ± 3% and women 216 ± 2%, indicating better visual stability and optical sensitivity in female athletes at optimal menstrual phases (II and IV). However, the equilibrium function ratio without and with visual control was higher in women (0.98 ± 0.02) than men (0.78 ± 0.06), suggesting superior adaptive coordination in women athletes. These results highlight the importance of gender-specific considerations in sports training and rehabilitation.

During the experimental part of the study, several practical problems were identified that female athletes and their coaches face when using classical monitoring methods. These methods often require laboratory equipment, significant financial resources, and considerable time, which makes them difficult to use in a regular training environment. This underscores the urgent need to develop more accessible, cost-effective, and reliable methodologies for monitoring and supporting the health and fitness of women in sports.

In the era of new technologies, there is a clear need to develop innovative and reliable methodologies for monitoring and maintaining the health and performance of female athletes. Optimizing performance and ensuring long-term well-being are vital goals.

Addressing the identified gender issues and integrating scientific knowledge into coaching practice is essential to improving elite female athletes' training, health, and performance.